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Nutrition

Episodes

exercise

Dr. Andy Galpin: The Optimal Diet, Supplement, & Recovery Protocol for Peak Performance

Posted on April 22nd 2025 (28 days)

Dr. Andy Galpin & Dr. Rhonda Patrick discuss nutrition, supplement, and recovery strategies for improving exercise performance.

nutrition

How to Solve Aging in America

Posted on February 19th 2025 (3 months)

Dr. Rhonda Patrick's testimony before the United States Senate Special Committee on Aging.

protein

The Science of Protein and Its Role in Longevity, Cancer, Aging, and Building Muscle

Posted on December 3rd 2024 (6 months)

Dr. Rhonda Patrick dives into the science of protein and discusses intake requirements, its ties to longevity, and debunks several protein-related myths.

Topic Pages

  • Autophagy

    Autophagy, or “self-eating,” is a response to stress in which a cell destroys damaged or dysfunctional components in order to adapt to external conditions.

  • Breast milk and breastfeeding

    Breast milk is a complex, dynamic fluid containing nutritional and non-nutritional components that support infant development. Breastfeeding benefits both infants and mothers.

  • Creatine

    Creatine is a naturally occurring compound best known for its widespread use as a dietary supplement to enhance physical performance.

  • Depression

    Depression – a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting 322 million people worldwide – is characterized by negative mood and metabolic, hormonal, and immune disturbances.

  • Fasting

    Fasting – the voluntary abstinence from food and drink – is an ancient practice now widely appreciated for its beneficial effects on healthspan.

  • FOXO

    FOXO proteins are transcriptional regulators that play an important role in healthy aging. Some FOXO genes may increase lifespan.

  • Hydrolyzed collagen

    Hydrolyzed collagen, a mixture of peptides derived from collagen, may improve skin aging, decrease arthritis-induced pain, increase bone mineral density, and reduce hypertension.

  • Neu5Gc

    Neu5Gc is a sialic acid produced in many mammals but not in humans. It is found in red meat and other animal products and has been found to accumulate in some human tissues.

  • Omega-3 fatty acids

    Omega-3 fatty acids play critical roles in human health and may be beneficial in ameliorating symptoms associated with chronic health conditions and in combating aging-related diseases.

  • Quercetin

    Quercetin is a plant-based bioactive compound that exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties across multiple organ systems.

  • Sodium (Salt)

    Sodium plays a crucial role in human physiology, yet its consumption remains a topic of ongoing debate in health and nutrition science.

  • Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs)

    Sugar-sweetened beverages such as soda, juice, and sports drinks provide large doses of rapidly absorbable sugar, posing a unique risk to health.

  • Ultra-processed Foods (UPFs)

    UPFs are formulations of mostly cheap industrial sources of dietary energy (calories) and nutrients plus additives that have negative effects on human health.

  • Vitamin C

    Vitamin C is an essential nutrient, widely recognized for its antioxidant properties and its roles in many critical processes and pathways.

  • Zinc

    Zinc is an essential nutrient that influences growth and development and plays critical roles in immune function, protein synthesis, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and cell division.

News & Publications

  • Long-term adherence to healthy diets more than doubles the likelihood of maintaining good overall health, both mentally and physically, into mid-70s. www.nature.com
    Nutrition Diet Aging Inflammation

    With more than 80% of older adults in the U.S. having at least one chronic health condition, finding ways to support healthy aging has become a public health priority. A recent study found that people who followed healthy diets over the long term were more than twice as likely to age well—physically, mentally, and emotionally—even into their mid-70s.

    Researchers followed adults for 30 years as part of two large, long-running health studies in the U.S. They looked at how closely people followed eight well-known dietary patterns, including the Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI)—a scoring system that reflects how well someone’s diet aligns with current nutrition guidelines. Other patterns included the Mediterranean diet, the DASH diet, a plant-based diet, and the Planetary Health Diet.

    The researchers also examined diets linked to higher levels of inflammation and insulin resistance and the amount of ultra-processed food people ate. They then compared these patterns to a comprehensive measure of healthy aging, including physical function, cognitive ability, mental health, and freedom from major chronic disease.

    They found that people with the highest AHEI scores were 2.43 times more likely to maintain good overall health as they aged, up to 75. Similar benefits appeared for people who followed Mediterranean-style, MIND, and plant-based diets. In contrast, those who ate the most ultra-processed food or followed dietary patterns that drive inflammation and high blood glucose levels were less likely to age in good health.

    These findings suggest that long-term dietary choices can meaningfully influence how well we age—not just how long we live. Learn more about lifestyle factors that prolong healthy aging in this episode featuring Dr. Rhonda Patrick.

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  • Strawberry consumption boosts thinking speed and lowers systolic blood pressure by 3% in older adults. www.sciencedirect.com
    Nutrition Diet Heart Disease Memory Blood Pressure Polyphenol Cardiovascular

    Cognitive decline and cardiovascular disease often go hand in hand—and both become more common with age. Nutrition plays a key role in protecting brain and heart health, and certain fruits rich in antioxidants may offer targeted benefits. A recent study found that consuming fresh strawberries daily improved cognitive function and lowered systolic blood pressure by an average of 3% in older adults.

    Researchers provided 35 healthy adults, ages 60 to 78, a strawberry powder or a placebo each day for eight weeks. Each person tried both options in random order, with a four-week break in between. The strawberry powder, made from freeze-dried fruit, delivered the same nutrients and antioxidants as two cups of fresh strawberries. The researchers measured the participants' cognitive function using standard tests and tracked markers of heart health, including blood pressure, waist size, blood lipids, and antioxidant levels.

    The participants' thinking speed improved during the strawberry phase, while episodic memory improved modestly during the placebo phase. After eight weeks of strawberry consumption, systolic blood pressure dropped by an average of 3%, and waist size decreased slightly. Participants' blood antioxidant capacity increased with strawberries but decreased with the placebo. Triglycerides increased during the placebo period but remained stable with strawberries.

    The findings from this small study suggest that regular strawberry intake supports brain and heart health in older adults. Strawberries are rich in polyphenols. Learn more about polyphenols in our overview article.

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  • A modified Mediterranean ketogenic diet boosts healthy brain fats and reduces Alzheimer's-associated markers, suggesting potential neuroprotective effects. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Nutrition Brain Alzheimer's Diet Ketogenic Diet

    Roughly 60% of the human brain is made up of fat, which plays a crucial role in the structure and function of brain cells. In Alzheimer’s, fat metabolism in the brain becomes altered, influencing disease progression. A recent study found that a modified Mediterranean ketogenic diet boosted healthy fats in the brain and lowered Alzheimer’s-associated markers.

    The study included 20 adults with prediabetes who were at risk for developing Alzheimer’s. Participants followed the modified Mediterranean ketogenic diet or the American Heart Association diet for six weeks. After a six-week break, they switched to the opposite diet for another six weeks. Before and after each diet intervention, participants underwent cognitive testing, and the researchers evaluated their blood lipids and Alzheimer’s markers, including amyloid-beta and tau.

    They found that the modified Mediterranean ketogenic diet caused notable changes in blood lipids, increasing molecules linked to fat breakdown and energy use (such as free fatty acids and acylcarnitines) while lowering triglycerides. It also boosted healthy lipid types (plasmalogens) and reduced harmful ones (deoxyceramides). These alterations in blood lipids correlated with improved Alzheimer’s biomarkers and cognitive measures. The American Heart Association diet had little or no effect on blood lipids or cognitive function.

    The traditional ketogenic diet is high in fat and low in carbohydrates. The modified Mediterranean-ketogenic diet is rich in fish, lean meats, and fiber-rich green leafy vegetables, nuts, and berries. About 5% to 10% of its calories come from carbohydrates, 60% to 65% from fat, and 30% from protein. In the American Heart Association diet, about 55% to 65% of calories come from carbohydrates, 15% to 20% from fat, and 20% to 30% from protein.

    The findings from this small intervention study suggest that a modified Mediterranean ketogenic diet protects against Alzheimer’s disease. Learn more about the ketogenic diet and Alzheimer’s disease in this clip featuring Dr. Dale Bredesen.

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  • Diets rich in omega-3s and antioxidants slow brain aging and improve cognitive function in older adults. www.nature.com
    Nutrition Diet Aging Omega-3 Mental Health Vitamin E Dementia

    While brain aging is an inevitable part of growing older, lifestyle factors, particularly diet, can influence the rate at which this aging occurs. A recent study found that older adults with diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and vitamins demonstrate slower brain aging and better performance on cognitive tests.

    Researchers administered cognitive tests and brain imaging scans to 100 healthy older adults. They also measured 13 nutrition-related biomarkers in the participants' blood.

    They identified two brain aging patterns among the participants, with one group exhibiting accelerated aging and the other slower aging. Further analysis revealed that distinct dietary patterns distinguished the two groups. In particular, the intake of specific nutrients positively influenced brain health and cognitive function, including: - Alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid found in nuts and seeds, such as walnuts and chia) - Eicosapentaenoic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid found in fatty fish, such as salmon) - Lutein (a polyphenol found in green leafy vegetables, such as kale) - Zeaxanthin (a polyphenol found in brightly colored vegetables, such as orange bell peppers and butternut squash) - Vitamin E (found in seeds and nuts, such as sunflower seeds and hazelnuts) - Choline (found in a variety of foods, including eggs and soybeans) These patterns were consistent even when considering the participants' demographics, fitness levels, and body measurements.

    These findings suggest that nutrient-rich diets are critical for maintaining cognitive health and decelerating the brain’s aging process. They also highlight the importance of dietary choices as potential tools to manage and mitigate age-related cognitive decline. Learn about other lifestyle choices that slow cognitive and physical aging in this episode featuring Dr. Rhonda Patrick.

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  • Naringenin, a citrus fruit flavonoid, preserves muscle mass in aging while enhancing exercise capacity and aerobic metabolism efficiency (animal study). medicalxpress.com
    Nutrition Aging Muscle Polyphenol

    Muscle mass declines markedly with age, with up to 8 percent muscle mass loss occurring per decade after age 30. Evidence suggests that naringenin, a flavonoid compound found in citrus fruits, maintains muscle mass in aging. Mice that ate a diet supplemented with naringenin showed improved muscle endurance and grip strength.

    Researchers supplemented the diets of young adult mice, middle-aged mice, and mice prone to muscular dystrophy (accelerated muscle loss) with naringenin. Then, they assessed naringenin’s effects on exercise capacity and aerobic metabolic levels in skeletal muscle.

    They found that young adult and middle-aged mice receiving naringenin could run farther than those that did not. Middle-aged mice also showed improved grip strength and increased calf muscle size. Mice prone to developing muscular dystrophy ran farther and showed improved grip strength.

    The researchers attributed these improvements in muscle endurance to naringenin’s capacity to increase the number of oxidative myofibers (muscle fibers that use oxygen) and improve the overall efficiency of aerobic metabolism in the body. They found that Sp1, a transcription factor that influences gene expression in muscle, likely mediated naringenin’s effects.

    These findings indicate that naringenin may preserve muscle mass in aging and disease. Other dietary components, such as omega-3 fatty acids, influence muscle maintenance, too. Learn more in this episode featuring Dr. Chris McGlory.

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  • Neuroprotection across generations: Worm study highlights ursolic acid's effects. neurosciencenews.com
    Nutrition Brain Diet Development

    Maternal exposures during pregnancy can influence the physiology and development of a woman’s child. But scientists aren’t sure whether this influence extends across generations. A new study in worms suggests that consuming ursolic acid – a bioactive compound found in apples and herbs, such as rosemary and sage – during pregnancy promotes the production of key fats in the brain, boosting neuronal health and function in progeny.

    Researchers studied the effects of ursolic acid supplementation in roundworms – a well-established model of human genetics. They fed the worms ursolic acid and assessed its effects on subsequent generations.

    They found that the worms' neural transport processes (similar to synaptic connectivity in vertebrates) were more efficient after consuming ursolic acid. The worms also demonstrated reduced susceptibility to axonal fragility in adulthood. Interestingly, these benefits transcended a singular generation, manifesting within subsequent progeny.

    The mechanism driving these effects centered around the modulation of sphingosine-1-phosphate, a bioactive metabolite of sphingolipid – a type of fat implicated in neural protection. The offspring of worms that consumed ursolic acid demonstrated elevated sphingosine-1-phosphate levels, thereby conveying neural protection across multiple generations.

    These findings suggest that dietary-acquired lipid metabolites can provide neuroprotection across generations. They also underscore the importance of maternal nutrition during pregnancy. Learn about other aspects of maternal (and paternal) health that influence offspring in this clip featuring Dr. Elissa Epel.

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  • Kombucha reduces blood glucose levels by nearly 30 percent. www.frontiersin.org
    Nutrition Gut Diet Microbiome Diabetes

    Kombucha is a fermented beverage made from tea, sugar, bacteria, and yeast. Some evidence suggests that kombucha exerts antimicrobial, antioxidant, detoxifying, and liver-protective effects. A new study has found that kombucha lowers blood glucose levels by nearly 30 percent in people with type 2 diabetes.

    Researchers conducted a small trial involving 12 adults with type 2 diabetes. The participants drank approximately 8 ounces of either kombucha or a placebo beverage daily for four weeks. Eight weeks later, they switched to the other option. During each intervention, they measured their fasting blood glucose levels at the start and after one and four weeks. They completed questionnaires about their overall health, insulin needs, gut health, skin condition, and mental state. The researchers analyzed the kombucha’s microbiota and quantified its fermentation products.

    When the participants drank the kombucha, they experienced a notable drop in average fasting blood glucose levels by the end of the intervention compared to the start (164 versus 116 mg/dL – nearly 30 percent lower). However, the placebo group did not experience the same reduction (162 versus 141 mg/dL – less than 13 percent lower). The microbiota analysis revealed lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid bacteria, and yeast as the dominant components. The primary fermentation products were lactic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol.

    This was a very small study, but the findings suggest that kombucha might have blood glucose-lowering potential for people with diabetes. Learn how consuming fermented foods, such as kombucha, kefir, and others, increases gut microbial diversity and decreases inflammation in this clip from a live Q&A with Dr. Rhonda Patrick.

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  • Higher omega-3 intake may reduce breast cancer risk by half. www.verywellhealth.com
    Nutrition Cancer Diet Breast Cancer Omega-3

    Higher intake of omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the risk of breast cancer, a 2022 study found. Women with the highest omega-3 intake were as much as 49 percent less likely to develop breast cancer than those with the lowest intake.

    Researchers conducted a study that included more than 3,200 women, roughly half of whom had breast cancer. The women provided information about what they typically ate, including foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, and whether they were pre- or postmenopausal.

    The researchers found that a higher intake of omega-3 in the form of alpha-linolenic acid reduced breast cancer risk by 49 percent; a higher intake in the form of eicosapentaenoic acid reduced risk by 32 percent. The links between omega-3s and breast cancer risk were strongest among premenopausal women and women with hormone-sensitive tumors. Interestingly, higher omega-3 intake markedly reduced the risk of breast cancer among women who had obesity or overweight but not among those who had healthy weights.

    These findings suggest that omega-3s reduce the risk of breast cancer, the second leading cause of cancer-related death among women. Inflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of many cancers, including breast cancer. Learn how omega-3 fatty acids reduce inflammation in this clip featuring Dr. Bill Harris.

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  • People Who Sleep Less Than Seven Hours Show Lower Intakes of Micro- and Macronutrients www.sci-news.com
    Nutrition Sleep

    People who don’t get enough macro- or micronutrients or fiber have poor sleep.

    Macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and fiber are the core components of the diet. Inadequate intake of these nutrients can impair biological processes and cause both acute and chronic health problems. Findings from a 2019 study suggest that people who don’t get enough macro- or micronutrients or fiber have poor sleep.

    Sleep is essential for human health. Not getting enough sleep or having poor, fragmented sleep increases a person’s risk of developing many chronic illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, stroke, obesity, and depression. Evidence suggests that insufficient sleep increases a person’s risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. The investigators analyzed data collected in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, an ongoing study of the health and nutritional status of people living in the United States. Their analysis included adults who provided information about their dietary intake, sleep patterns, and overall health.

    They found that roughly one-third of the participants reported short sleep (regularly sleeping less than seven hours per night) and nearly one-half reported having poor sleep quality. Those who had short sleep or poor sleep quality were more likely to have a lower intake of several macro- and micronutrients, including magnesium, niacin, zinc, vitamins A, K, B1, B6, and B12, calcium, and dietary fiber. Although the effects were stronger in women, dietary supplements compensated for the low dietary intake.

    These findings suggest that low intake of macro- and micronutrients impairs sleep in adults and suggest that dietary supplements can compensate for dietary shortcomings. Learn about other dietary components that influence sleep duration and quality in this clip featuring Dr. Matthew Walker.

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  • Diet plays key role in ADHD symptoms in children news.osu.edu
    Nutrition ADHD

    Poor diet quality increases symptom severity in children with ADHD.

    Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neuro-behavioral condition characterized by inattention, impulsive behavior, and emotional dysregulation. The condition affects as many as 10 percent of children living in the United States and is more common among males than females. Findings from a recent study suggest that poor diet quality increases symptom severity in children with ADHD.

    Although the causes of ADHD are likely multifactorial, evidence suggests that nutrition may influence both the etiology and severity of the condition. For example, some studies have shown that addressing micronutrient deficiencies, poor omega-3 fatty acid status, and food additive sensitivities may ameliorate symptoms of ADHD.

    The study involved 134 children (ages 6 to 12 years) who had been diagnosed with ADHD and were enrolled in the Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) Study. Parents provided demographic information about the children’s gender, ethnicity, race, parent/guardians’ occupation, parent/guardians’ level of education, and family income, and completed food frequency questionnaires about the children’s diets. They also answered questions about the children’s behavior and ranked the severity of their ADHD symptoms.

    The data revealed that the overall diet quality of this sample of children was slightly higher than that of the average child living in the United States. However, low fruit and vegetable intake was associated with having more severe ADHD symptoms, even after considering the children’s demographics. Interestingly, high intake of refined grains was associated with having less severe symptoms. The authors posited that this might have been because refined grains are fortified with micronutrients, compensating for what might be an otherwise poor diet.

    These findings suggest that dietary factors play instrumental roles in ADHD symptom severity in children and underscore the importance of appropriate nutritional intake during childhood. Getting children to eat more fruits and vegetables can be challenging, however. This tasty, micronutrient-rich smoothie might be one way to help kids get the fruits and vegetables they need.

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  • Compound derived from walnuts and pomegranates may boost mitochondrial and muscle health. www.eurekalert.org
    Nutrition Mitochondria Urolithin A

    As a person ages, mitochondrial function declines, driving many age-related conditions, including the progressive loss of muscle mass and strength. Findings from a recent study suggest that a compound derived from ellagic acid metabolism helps restore mitochondrial and muscle health in older adults.

    Ellagic acid is a bioactive compound found in a wide variety of fruits, nuts, and vegetables, especially walnuts, pomegranates, and rose hips. Bacteria in the human gut break down ellagic acid to produce compounds called urolithins. Scientists have identified about 20 urolithins, but the most studied of these is urolithin A, which exerts potent anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties. The capacity to form urolithin A from ellagic acid varies considerably from person to person and decreases with age.

    The randomized clinical trial involved 66 older adults (average age, 71 years) who had poor mitochondrial function. Half of the participants received 1,000 milligrams of urolithin A daily for four months; the other half received a placebo. The participants underwent muscle endurance tests and a timed walking test at the beginning of the study and again at various timepoints throughout the study. Study investigators measured ATP production in the participants' muscle and acylcarnitines, ceramides, and C-reactive protein (markers of mitochondrial health and inflammation) in the participants' blood.

    At the end of the four-month study, participants who received the urolithin A supplement showed marked improvements in muscle endurance compared to those who received the placebo. Those who received the urolithin A also exhibited decreased levels of acylcarnitines, ceramides, and C-reactive protein.

    These findings suggest that urolithin A, a compound derived from ellagic acid, promotes mitochondrial health and improves muscle endurance in older adults. Ellagic acid is a type of polyphenol. Learn more about polyphenols in our overview article.

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  • Sugars found in human breast milk boost cognitive flexibility. www.tandfonline.com
    Nutrition Development Breast Milk

    Breastfeeding during early childhood is associated with positive life outcomes, ranging from improved metabolic health to greater cognitive ability. Researchers believe this effect stems from human breast milk being particularly rich in indigestible sugars, many of which are exclusive to the human species and known as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). Now, a new study reports that a particular class of HMOs may be uniquely crucial – at least when it comes to cognitive development.

    The researchers conducted their study in piglets, whose anatomical and cognitive development resembles that of human children. Starting at two weeks of age, piglets were randomly selected to receive one of four milk replacement formulas: a control formula mimicking the oligosaccharide composition of pig milk, and three others containing various types of HMOs.

    Eight weeks later, piglets were transitioned to a solid diet and trained on a challenging memory task that required them to remember which four out of 16 possible locations in a large arena contained hidden food rewards. For an extra challenge, they started each new trial from a different drop-off point, which meant that they had to actively engage with their surroundings to navigate to the rewarded spots.

    Then the animals completed a test of cognitive flexibility – the ability to adapt to changing environments and rules. The researchers baited a new set of four locations with the food rewards and watched how quickly piglets reacted to the change. They found that the piglets that had consumed formula containing sialylated HMOs (HMOs containing a special sugar called sialic acid) were better learners than their peers, especially those whose formula mimicked pig milk. This last group were slowest to learn the new reward locations and more likely to accidentally re-visit spots where they had already collected a reward – a sign of short-term memory lapse.

    These results suggest that sialylated HMOs are a particularly crucial component of breast milk for the development of flexible cognition. This effect might be underpinned by the oligosaccharides' high content of sialic acid, which is found in brain cell membranes and implicated in regulating cellular communication, developmental gene activity, and myelination, (the process of coating neuronal axons in fatty tissue that speeds up signaling). Learn more about HMOs and other beneficial components of breast milk in this episode featuring Dr. Rhonda Patrick.

    Link to full publication

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  • Daily avocado consumption improves body fat distribution and reduces visceral fat apple.news
    Nutrition Diet Obesity Metabolic Syndrome Weight Loss Visceral Fat

    Seventy percent of adults living in the United States have overweight (BMI greater than 25) or obesity (BMI greater than 30), putting them at increased risk of metabolic disease. Extra fat stored around the body promotes inflammation and insulin resistance, but extra abdominal fat is particularly dangerous. Findings of a recent report suggest consuming foods rich in unsaturated fat and dietary fiber may improve fat distribution in females.

    Fat stored in the lower body, called subcutaneous fat, is located just under the skin. Fat stored in the abdominal region, called visceral fat, is wrapped around the internal organs (e.g., the liver, pancreas, and intestines). Visceral fat interferes with lipid metabolism in the liver, promoting insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. A diet that includes avocados, which are rich in mono-unsaturated fats and dietary fiber, is associated with lower abdominal obesity.

    The investigators recruited 105 adults between the ages of 25 and 45 years who had overweight or obesity. They assigned participants to receive meals with avocado (about one Hass avocado) or meals without avocado that were matched for calories and total fat. The two meals contained different amounts of saturated fat, unsaturated fat, and fiber. Participants consumed their assigned meals once per day for 12 weeks and were told not to change their diet in other ways. Participants completed an oral glucose tolerance test to measure insulin resistance and had their body composition measured using X-ray.

    In females, avocado consumption decreased visceral adiposity and the ratio of visceral to subcutaneous fat, indicating an improvement in body fat distribution. Both males and females in the control group experienced a loss of subcutaneous fat and an increase in the ratio of visceral to subcutaneous fat, indicating a worsening of body composition over the 12 weeks. Avocado consumption had no effect on insulin resistance.

    The authors concluded that avocado consumption improved body fat distribution in females, but had no effects on body fat distribution in males or on insulin resistance in either males or females.

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  • Omega-3 fatty acids slow memory loss in people with Alzheimer's disease. apple.news
    Nutrition Alzheimer's Omega-3 Neurodegeneration

    Omega-3 fatty acids are essential for human health. They participate in pathways involved in the biosynthesis of hormones that regulate blood clotting, contraction and relaxation of artery walls, and inflammation. They have been shown to help prevent heart disease and stroke; may help control lupus, eczema, and rheumatoid arthritis; and may play protective roles in cancer and other conditions. Findings from a new study suggest that omega-3 fatty acids slow cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease.

    Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss and cognitive decline. The primary risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease is aging, with risk roughly doubling every five years after the age of 65 years. Nutritional status also plays key roles in Alzheimer’s disease risk and pathology. The intervention study involved 33 people who had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Approximately half of the participants took a supplement providing 2.3 grams of omega-3 fatty acids daily for six months; the other half took a placebo. All participants took the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), a widely accepted measure of memory and cognitive function, before and after the intervention. The study investigators collected cerebrospinal fluid samples before and after the intervention to measure several biomarkers associated with neurodegenerative diseases and inflammation, including amyloid beta proteins, tau, interleukin 6, chitinase-3-like protein 1 (YKL-40), and neurofilament light (NfL). YKL-40 is associated with neuroinflammation, and NfL is associated with damage to the axons of nerves in brain white matter.

    The MMSE scores of the participants who took the omega-3 fatty acid supplements remained stable over the six-month intervention, decreasing by only 0.06 points, but the scores of those who took the placebo decreased by two points. The two groups' biomarkers were similar at the beginning of the intervention, but YKL-40 and NfL increased slightly in the group that received the omega-3 fatty acid supplement, indicating a possible increase in neurodegeneration and inflammatory responses. However, the increase in the two biomarkers did not correlate with the participants' MMSE scores.

    These findings suggest that omega-3 fatty acids help maintain memory and cognitive function in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease. This was a very small study, however, and further research is needed to confirm any protective effects of omega-3 fatty acid intake in Alzheimer’s disease.

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  • Including mushrooms as part of a healthy dietary pattern provides many essential nutrients. www.eurekalert.org
    Nutrition Micronutrients

    Current dietary guidelines for people living in the United States recommend following a health dietary pattern that is rich in nutrient-dense foods to promote health and prevent chronic disease. Findings from a recent study demonstrate that including mushrooms as part of a healthy dietary pattern provides many essential nutrients.

    Mushrooms are edible fungi, generally categorized as vegetables in the human diet. They are rich sources of many vitamins and minerals, including B vitamins, potassium, and selenium. When grown in the presence of ultraviolet light, mushrooms are good sources of vitamin D2. Mushrooms also contain a variety of bioactive compounds, including the antioxidant molecules ergothioneine and glutathione.

    The authors of the study conducted a dietary modeling analysis to investigate the effects of adding a serving (84 grams, about ½ cup) of a combination of white, crimini, and portabella mushrooms or oyster mushrooms only to three healthy eating patterns: US style, Mediterranean style, and vegetarian style. They obtained nutrient data for the mushrooms from the USDA nutrient database, and nutritional profiles for the three dietary patterns from USDA dietary analyses.

    The assessment revealed that a single serving of mushrooms added approximately 2 to 3 percent more fiber, 8 to 12 percent more potassium, 12 to 18 percent more riboflavin (a B vitamin), 11 to 26 percent more niacin (a B vitamin), 11 to 23 percent more selenium, and 16 to 26 percent more copper, depending upon the dietary pattern under comparison. Eating mushrooms that had been exposed to sufficient ultraviolet light to increase vitamin D levels to 200 IU per serving increased vitamin D intake by 67 to 90 percent. A single serving of oyster mushrooms added 8 to 11 percent more vitamin D and 10 to 16 percent more choline to the dietary patterns. Data from other studies suggest that a single serving of mushrooms would add 2.2 milligrams of ergothioneine and 3.5 milligrams of glutathione to the three dietary patterns.

    These findings suggest that mushrooms provide many key nutrients and can be part of a healthy dietary pattern. This study was supported by the Mushroom Council.

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  • Benefits of low-fat versus low-carbohydrate diets. www.sciencedaily.com
    Nutrition Ketogenic Diet

    Obesity affects more than 650 million people worldwide. Although low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets are effective at helping people lose weight, the health benefits and sustainability of the two dietary approaches are matters of controversy. A recent trial weighed the benefits of low-fat versus low-carbohydrate diets.

    The causes of obesity and overweight are not fully known. Some scientists have suggested that consuming high-glycemic carbohydrates increases insulin levels, ultimately driving a vicious cycle of body fat accumulation, hunger, and food intake, commonly referred to as the “carbohydrate-insulin” model of obesity. Others have suggested that consuming high-fat foods drives overconsumption of calories due the foods' high caloric levels, poor ability to provide satisfaction and fullness, and high “pleasure factor.”

    The four-week crossover trial involved 20 healthy men and women (average age, 30 years). Half of the participants ate an animal-based, ketogenic, low-carbohydrate diet that provided about 10 percent of its calories from carbohydrates and about 75 percent from fat and high calorie foods. The other half ate a plant-based, low-fat diet that provided about 10 percent of its calories from fat and about 75 percent from carbohydrates and low-calorie foods. After two weeks on their respective diets, participants switched diets and adhered to the new diet for another two weeks. All meals were prepared and served in an in-patient metabolic ward to ensure compliance. The study investigators monitored the participants' weight, vital signs, blood ketones, energy expenditure, activity, and other measures throughout the study.

    Although both diets promoted weight loss, participants on the low-carbohydrate diet lost more weight (1.5 pounds) and faster, but the difference was not statistically or clinically significant. The participants who ate the low-fat diet had higher glucose and insulin levels compared to those who ate the low-carbohydrate diet. They didn’t report any differences in hunger, fullness, or satisfaction with their meals. When eating the low-fat diet, participants ate about 690 fewer calories per day than when eating the low-carbohydrate diet over the two-week period.

    These findings suggest that whereas eating a low-carbohydrate diet is beneficial in reducing glucose and insulin levels, the low-fat diet reduces appetite, a finding that contradicts the carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity.

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  • Sulforaphane improves blood glucose control in obese people with type 2 diabetes. stm.sciencemag.org
    Nutrition Diabetes Sulforaphane NRF2 Metformin Glucoraphanin

    Type 2 diabetes is a progressive metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels and insulin resistance. Long-term complications from poorly controlled type 2 diabetes include heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure, among others. Findings from a 2017 study demonstrated that sulforaphane reduces glucose production in the liver and improves blood glucose control. Glucose is the body’s primary metabolic fuel. In the fasted state, the body can produce glucose via gluconeogenesis, a highly conserved pathway that occurs primarily in the liver. Increased liver gluconeogenesis among people with type 2 diabetes is a major contributor to high blood glucose and subsequent disease complications.

    The authors of the study investigated the effects of sulforaphane in several rodent models of type 2 diabetes and found that sulforaphane ameliorated many of the hallmark characteristics of the disease. Then they assessed sulforaphane’s effects in 97 people with type 2 diabetes. Sixty of the participants had well-regulated disease, but 37 had poorly regulated disease. Of those with poorly regulated disease, 17 had obesity. Nearly all of the participants took metformin, a common blood glucose-lowering drug.

    Participants received either an oral placebo or glucoraphanin-rich broccoli sprout extract every day for 12 weeks. The authors of the study measured the participants' fasting blood glucose and HbA1c (a measure of long-term blood glucose control) levels and assessed their glucose tolerance prior to and after the intervention.

    Sulforaphane administration improved fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels in the obese participants who had poorly regulated type 2 diabetes. Sulforaphane mediated these effects via Nrf2 activity and subsequent reduced expression of enzymes that promote glucose production in the liver.

    These findings suggest that sulforaphane ameliorates some of the hallmark characteristics of diabetes in humans. The mechanisms by which sulforaphane mediates these effects differ from those of metformin, suggesting that the two could work in a complementary manner to improve blood glucose control in obese people with type 2 diabetes.

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  • Nrf2 pathway is a major target for sulforaphane. www.sciencedirect.com
    Nutrition Sulforaphane Glutathione NRF2

    Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) is a cellular protein that regulates the expression of antioxidant and stress response proteins. It participates in the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE biological pathway – the primary mechanism by which sulforaphane exerts its beneficial effects. A 2017 review describes the role of sulforaphane in the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway and summarizes the beneficial health effects associated with the compound.

    The Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway is a key mediator of cytoprotective responses to oxidative and electrophilic stressors. Under normal cellular conditions, Keap1 tethers Nrf2 in the cytoplasm (the region of the cell outside the nucleus), where it can be tagged and delivered for degradation. However, following exposure to stressors, Keap1 undergoes modifications that impair its ability to bind to and target Nrf2 for degradation. As a result, Nrf2 is free to travel to the nucleus, where it binds to antioxidant response elements (AREs) of DNA. AREs are sequences in the regulatory regions of genes that activate transcription of a diverse group of cytoprotective enzymes.

    Isothiocyanates react with certain regions on Keap1, eliminating Keap1’s ability to target Nrf2 for degradation – effectively serving the role of stressor. Sulforaphane, an isothiocyanate derived from broccoli and broccoli sprouts, is the most potent naturally occurring inducer of Nrf2.

    The authors of the review presented evidence that sulforaphane protects against carcinogenesis in models of skin, oral, stomach, colon, lung, prostate, and bladder cancer. They also reported that feeding studies involving humans and consumption of isothiocyanate-rich cruciferous vegetables have demonstrated measurable Nrf2 activity, reflected in increased levels antioxidant proteins and enzymes, including glutathione S-transferase and NQO1. Future research will inform optimal dosages and formulations for clinical trials.

    Watch this clip in which Dr. Jed Fahey describes the early co-discoveries of sulforaphane and Nrf2 and describes the importance of the Nrf2 pathway.

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  • Determining the optimal dose and source of sulforaphane poses challenges. www.mdpi.com
    Nutrition Sulforaphane NRF2 Myrosinase Glucoraphanin

    A substantial body of evidence from experimental, epidemiological, and clinical studies demonstrates the beneficial effects of sulforaphane consumption on human health. Many questions remain, however, regarding optimal formulation, bioavailability, and dosage of sulforaphane. A 2019 review discusses these and other aspects of the current state of evidence surrounding sulforaphane.

    Sulforaphane is the end-product of a chemical reaction between two naturally occurring plant compounds – glucoraphanin and myrosinase. These compounds, often referred to as secondary metabolites, are not required for the plant’s growth or reproduction. Rather, they confer an advantage to the plant, particularly in terms of defense, participating in a dual-component chemical defense system – commonly referred to as the “mustard oil bomb” – that protects plants from environmental stressors. Glucoraphanin content in broccoli sprouts and mature broccoli vary across species and cultivar and is influenced by factors such as soil and growing conditions, harvest time, and post-harvest storage.

    Most rodent studies of sulforaphane’s effects administer the end product via oral, intraperitoneal, or topical means. The median effective dose is 175 micromoles (~30 milligrams) per kilogram of the animal’s body weight when given orally; the median effective dose when given intraperitoneally is 113 micromoles (~20 milligrams) per kilogram. Most studies report beneficial outcomes, but this might be due to publication bias – the tendency for researchers to publish favorable results only. High doses (greater than 150 milligrams) elicited negative effects, including sleepiness, hypothermia, impaired motor coordination, and even death. When given with other drugs, sulforaphane potentiated some of the drugs' effects.

    In humans, sulforaphane undergoes extensive biotransformation in the gut to yield mercapturic acid, which can be measured in urine and serves as a biomarker of intake. In general, sulforaphane is rapidly absorbed and eliminated, with most people excreting between 70 and 90 percent of the dose taken.

    Clinical studies have assessed the merits of sulforaphane in a wide range of chronic and infectious diseases, including autism, aflatoxin toxicity, air pollution detoxication, cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative disease, Helicobacter pylori infection, and many others. Doses varied markedly and in terms of whether supplied as glucoraphanin (the precursor) or sulforaphane (the end product). The median dose of glucoraphanin was 190 micromoles (~76 milligrams) and of sulforaphane was 100 micromoles (~18 milligrams).

    The authors of the review enumerate several issues that must be overcome in designing and conducting clinical studies with sulforaphane, but they stress the importance of plant-based diets as delivery modes for not only sulforaphane but other bioactive compounds that promote health. They also noted concerns that determining dose is inherently difficult in light of the differences in bioavailability of glucoraphanin and sulforaphane; translating animal data to humans poses many challenges.

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  • Scientists find molecular link between meat and dairy diets and colorectal cancer. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Nutrition Cancer

    Currently selected for this coming member’s digest by team member Melisa B.

    The World Health Organizations classifies red meat as a carcinogen based on epidemiological studies showing positive associations between eating red meat and developing colorectal cancer as well as strong mechanistic evidence. Multiple components present in red meat likely contribute to this risk, including saturated fat and heme iron. New research suggests that Neu5Gc, a type of sugar, provides another possible mechanism to explain the cancer-promoting effects of diets high in red meat and dairy products.

    Neu5Gc is a carbohydrate produced by non-human mammals and found in red meat and dairy products. Humans cannot produce Neu5Gc so the body recognizes it as foreign and produces antibodies against it called “anti-Neu5Gc IgG.” Research has demonstrated a link between high anti-Neu5Gc IgG levels and increased colon cancer risk; however, no direct correlation between diet and blood levels of anti-Neu5Gc IgG has been shown.

    The authors of this report collected data from nearly 20,000 participants enrolled in NutriNet-Santé, an ongoing observational cohort study based in France. Participants self-reported their diet using a 24-hour recall method and gave blood for biomarker measurement. After reviewing the diet record data for Neu5Gc content, the authors chose a subset of 120 participants with varying levels of estimated Neu5Gc consumption and measured the anti-Neu5Gc IgG concentration of their banked blood samples.

    The authors reported a distinct dose-dependent positive association between dietary content of Neu5Gc and blood concentrations of anti-Neu5Gc antibodies. Men consumed significantly more Neu5Gc in their diets, especially from red meat, and exhibited corresponding increases in anti-Neu5Gc IgG levels. In addition to the link between diet and antibody concentrations, the authors also report a link between increased meat and dairy consumption and the diversity of anti-Neu5Gc IgG. Antibodies vary slightly in structure so that one antigen may produce many different antibodies. Consuming more Neu5Gc increased the variety of anti-Neu5Gc antibody types in the blood, which may lead to a stronger immune reaction.

    These findings are the first to demonstrate a link between dietary intake of Neu5Gc and anti-Neu5Gc IgG response. This novel observational research may have important implications for colon cancer risk; however, controlled trials are necessary to explore any causative role of Neu5Gc in disease.

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  • Spices dampen pro-inflammatory response to a high-saturated fat, high-carbohydrate meal. www.sciencedaily.com
    Nutrition

    Eating a meal that is high in saturated fat and refined carbohydrates increases blood glucose and blood lipid levels. In turn, the body launches an inflammatory response. Chronic inflammation is associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Findings from a new study suggest that adding a spice mixture to a high fat/high sugar meal can dampen the body’s inflammatory response, potentially reducing the associated risk of cardiovascular disease.

    Spices are derived from the seeds, roots, bark, or flowers of plants. Research indicates that spices contain bioactive compounds that exert antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects.

    The crossover, randomized, controlled trial involved 12 middle-aged men who were overweight or obese and had at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Each of the men consumed three versions of a high-saturated fat, refined carbohydrate meal, providing approximately 1,000 calories per meal, separated by a three-day washout period. One meal contained no additional spices, one contained a 2-gram spice blend (representing low spice intake), and one contained a 6-gram spice blend (representing high spice intake, roughly one teaspoon to one tablespoon). The spice blend contained a mixture of spices and herbs commonly consumed in the American diet, including basil, bay leaf, black pepper, cinnamon, coriander, cumin, ginger, oregano, parsley, red pepper, rosemary, thyme, and turmeric. The participants provided blood samples before and multiple times after consuming the meals.

    The blood samples revealed that consumption of the meal containing the 6-gram spice blend reduced levels of pro-inflammatory proteins IL-1 beta, IL-8, and TNF-alpha. At six hours after consuming the 6-gram spice meal, levels of IL-1 beta were more than 1,300 percent lower than after consuming the meal without spices or with 2 grams of spices. IL-1 beta is a proinflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages and is an important mediator of the body’s inflammatory response.

    These findings suggest that consumption of spices can mediate the proinflammatory effects of a high-saturated fat, refined carbohydrate meal. Nutritional interventions that emphasize the consumption of spices might reduce inflammation and decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease associated with unhealthy diets.

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